Selman's Perspective-Taking
Selman's Levels of Perspective-Taking
Perspective-taking — the ability to understand that other people have viewpoints, thoughts, and feelings that may differ from one's own — is a foundational component of social cognition and a key developmental achievement of childhood. Robert Selman (1971, 1980) proposed a five-level model of perspective-taking development, arguing that children move through a universal sequence of increasingly sophisticated understanding of self and others.
Assessment Method
Selman assessed perspective-taking using interpersonal dilemma stories — narratives presenting social conflicts in which the characters have different, potentially competing perspectives. The most well-known is the Holly dilemma: Holly is a skilled tree climber whose father asks her not to climb trees after she nearly falls. She later encounters a friend whose kitten is stuck in a tree — only Holly can rescue it. Selman asked structured questions: 'Does Holly's father know why she climbed the tree?' 'What will Holly's father think if he finds out?' Children's responses revealed their level of perspective-taking reasoning.
The Five Levels
| Level | Name | Age (approx.) | Key characteristic | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | Egocentric/Undifferentiated | 3–6 years | Child cannot distinguish own from others' perspectives — assumes others feel and think as they do | 'Holly's dad will be happy because I would be happy if my cat was rescued' |
| 1 | Social-informational | 6–8 years | Recognises that others may have different information and therefore different perspectives; cannot yet take both simultaneously | 'Holly's dad doesn't know about the kitten, so he won't understand why she climbed' |
| 2 | Self-reflective | 8–10 years | Can think about own perspective from another's viewpoint (recursive); knows others can do the same; still sequential rather than simultaneous | 'Holly knows that her dad will think she just wanted to climb, even though she knows she had a good reason' |
| 3 | Mutual/Third-person | 10–12 years | Can step outside both own and other's perspective and consider the situation from an objective, neutral third-person view; holds both perspectives simultaneously | 'They both want to do the right thing — from the outside, it's hard to say who's right' |
| 4 | Social and conventional | 12+ years | Understands that perspectives are shaped by broader societal, cultural, and legal systems; can consider how shared social norms affect interpretation | 'Society expects children to obey their parents, but also values compassion — both norms are in conflict here' |
Links to Social Cognition and Theory of Mind
Selman's framework complements theory of mind (B1550) — both describe the development of understanding that other minds may differ from one's own. Selman's Levels 0 and 1 are broadly parallel to pre-theory-of-mind and basic theory-of-mind stages respectively. Selman adds the higher social cognitive levels (2–4) that theory of mind research has typically not addressed — particularly the third-person and societal perspectives that develop in later childhood and adolescence.
Key Takeaways
- Perspective-taking: understanding that others have viewpoints, thoughts, and feelings that may differ from one's own — foundational to social cognition.
- Level 0 — Egocentric (3–6 yrs): no distinction between own and others' perspectives — assumes others feel as they do.
- Level 1 — Social-informational (6–8 yrs): recognises others may have different information → different perspectives; still sequential.
- Level 2 — Self-reflective (8–10 yrs): recursive — knows others can take their perspective. Still not fully simultaneous.
- Level 3 — Mutual/Third-person (10–12 yrs): can step outside both perspectives to take a neutral, objective view — holds both simultaneously.
- Level 4 — Social and conventional (12+ yrs): perspectives understood in the context of broader social norms, cultural systems, and legal frameworks.