Ethics in Research

Ethics in Psychological Research

Ethical principles govern what researchers may do to participants in the name of advancing psychological knowledge. The tension between the scientific value of research and the welfare and rights of participants is managed through ethical codes and guidelines. In the UK, the British Psychological Society (BPS) Code of Ethics and Conduct provides the primary framework for ethical psychological research.

Key Ethical Principles (BPS)

Informed consent: participants must be given sufficient information about the study to make a voluntary, informed decision about whether to participate. They should understand the study's general nature, what will be required of them, and any foreseeable risks. However, full disclosure is sometimes impossible without invalidating the study (e.g. if knowing the true hypothesis would produce demand characteristics). In such cases, informed consent may be sought for a description of the general procedure rather than the specific hypothesis.

Deception: deliberately withholding information about the study's true purpose or misleading participants. Deception should only be used when: (a) it is the only way to conduct the research; (b) the research is of sufficient scientific importance to justify it; (c) participants would not have withheld consent had they known the true nature; and (d) it is followed by thorough debriefing. Milgram's obedience studies are the most discussed example: participants were deceived about the nature of the shocks. The APA and BPS accept that Milgram's findings were of sufficient importance to partially justify the deception, though the psychological harm caused remains controversial.

Right to withdraw: participants must be told they can end their participation at any time without penalty, and that withdrawing will not affect any payment or rewards promised. Milgram's study compromised this by using 'prods' from the experimenter that pressured participants to continue.

Protection from harm: participants should not experience physical or psychological harm beyond what they might encounter in everyday life. Researchers must anticipate potential harm and take steps to prevent it, providing support where distress occurs.

Confidentiality and anonymity: participant data must be kept confidential and, where possible, participants should be anonymous. Published research should not allow identification of individuals.

Debriefing: at the end of the study, participants should be told its true purpose, have any deception explained, and be given the opportunity to ask questions. Debriefing should restore any damage to self-concept caused by the study and should identify any referral needs.

Privacy: participants' personal information and behaviour should only be accessed in ways consistent with their reasonable expectations of privacy.

Ethical Issues in the Use of Non-Human Animals

Animal research has contributed important findings to psychology — Pavlov's conditioning research, Harlow's attachment studies, and research on the neural basis of learning all used animal subjects. The ethical framework governing animal research weighs the potential scientific benefit against the cost to animal welfare.

In the UK, animal research is regulated by the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986, which requires a licence from the Home Office for any procedure likely to cause pain, suffering, distress, or lasting harm to a protected animal. The BPS also provides guidelines stating that: research should only be conducted if the knowledge gained justifies the cost to the animals; the minimum number of animals should be used; suffering should be minimised; and the use of the least sentient species appropriate to the research question is preferred.

Ethical debates around animal research involve the moral status of different species, the validity of generalising animal findings to humans, and whether the benefits of the knowledge produced justify the harm. The three Rs framework guides practice: Replace animals with alternatives where possible; Reduce the number of animals used; Refine procedures to minimise suffering.