Media and Aggression

The Original Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer and Sears (1939) made two bold universal claims: first, that frustration (the blocking of goal-directed behaviour) always leads to aggression; second, that aggression is always caused by frustration. Aggression need not be directed at the actual source of frustration — it can be displaced onto a substitute target. Dollard et al. also proposed catharsis: expressing aggression reduces the aggressive drive, providing temporary relief.

Berkowitz's Revision (1989)

Berkowitz rejected the "always" formulation, arguing instead that frustration produces a generalised negative affect (aversive emotional state). This negative affect only leads to aggression if aggressive cues are present in the environment — stimuli that have been associated with aggression through prior learning. Without such cues, frustration may lead instead to depression, apathy, or problem-solving.

The Weapons Effect — Berkowitz & LePage (1967)

In a laboratory study, participants were given either one shock or seven shocks by a confederate (frustration manipulation). They then had the opportunity to administer shocks using the Buss (1961) paradigm. In the room, some participants saw a gun; others saw a badminton racquet; others saw nothing. Participants who had been frustrated and saw the gun administered significantly more shocks than those in other conditions. The gun served as an aggressive cue that triggered and amplified aggressive responding — consistent with the revision.

Arbitrary vs Non-Arbitrary Frustration

Geen and Berkowitz (1967) found that frustration which appeared arbitrary (unjustified) led to more aggression than frustration that was explained or non-arbitrary. This suggests that cognitive appraisal — not merely the blocking of a goal — modulates the aggressive response.

Displaced Aggression

Marcus-Newhall et al. (2000) conducted a meta-analysis of 49 studies on displaced aggression (aggression directed at an innocent third party). They confirmed that displaced aggression is a real and reliable phenomenon, though the effect size was moderate. The presence of a 'triggering' event (minor provocation from the substitute target) substantially increased displaced aggression.

Evaluation

Berkowitz's revision is more empirically defensible than Dollard's original: the weapons effect (replicated cross-culturally) provides direct experimental support for the role of cues. However, catharsis — central to Dollard's model — has been largely disconfirmed: Bushman et al. (2002) found that venting anger increased, rather than decreased, subsequent aggression.

A broader limitation is that the hypothesis offers an incomplete account of aggression: Bandura (1965) demonstrated that aggression can be learned without frustration (through observation alone), and frustration can lead to many non-aggressive responses (withdrawal, increased effort, problem-solving). Cognitive appraisal theorists (Lazarus, 1966) further argue that the subjective interpretation of frustration matters — identical goal-blocking events produce very different responses in different individuals.